Roadside verge, bee haven?

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University of Exceter, 9th -August-2020-  Research that had been led by the University of Exceter had discovered that roadside verges can provide suitable refuge for pollinators despite high  levels of pollution and risk of getting hit by oncoming traffic. It has been urged the positives significantly outweigh the negatives. 

It has been said in this study that all verges won't have the exact same benefits as one another. It was found that verges along quieter stretches of road showed the best results. This study states that less cutting throughout the year and leaving it until later in the year to cut will have signifficant benefits to the pollinator population. 

Regular cutting of grass will result in loss of shelter and nectar source and this will be amplified if done in peak summer periods where the pollinators are most active. Wildflowers are most prevalent during this period and the removal of these wildflowers will reduce many pollinator's opportunity for pollination leading to increased risk of starvation  and less flowers pollinated leading to less flowers. 

It has been emphasized that cuttings should be altered from peak flowering periods to Autumn, a period were pollinators are notably less active reducing the impact. The only section that should be considered being cut is the area 2m in from the roadside. This is the case as these sections were recorded to have the lowest abundance in pollinator populations and are the most important zone for visibility for road users. 

These road verges creates a network of corridors providing sufficient food sources to sustain this population. These verges pose many negative aspects including pollution, collision but it has been stressed that the positive effects remarkably outweigh these negative aspects which may somewhat help the 97% decrease of meadow wildflowers since the 1930's. 

Street lights cause great confusion to nocturnal insects and the University of Exceter have stated these verges can be dramatically improved through limiting the amount of street lights used.“This new research shows the potential that road verges have to help to reverse insect declines.

“By making small changes to the management of our road verge network, local authorities and others involved in road verge management can make a significant difference to support nature’s recovery.'

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Moths are an overlooked Pollinator

University College London (UCL), 12th May 2020 - Moths are important pollen transporters in English farmlands and play a significant role in the maintenance of crop yields. Although they may not receive as much media coverage as daytime pollinators but research led by (UCL) showed that nocturnal moths have a larger, more complex pollination network and will often compliment the pollination done by the daytime pollinators. Moths will commonly visit the same flowers already visited and will visit flowers that hasn't been pollinated during the day. They serve as a form of back-up for biodiversity, which in turn supports crop yields.

Lead author, Dr Richard Walton (UCL Geography researcher) had stated that moths have a vital, yet often overlooked pollinators which play vital ecological functions being responsible to a certain degree of floral diversity and abundance. He also makes a bold statement that many species including bats, mammals, birds etc would be put under significant pressure without the moth. 

Moths uniquely pollen with their chest instead of their tongue optimizing the volume of pollen being transported. This essentially means more pollen from a single interaction will be introduced to higher numbers of flower individuals. While feeding, the moth's distinctly hairy body comes into contact with the male floral reproductive parts where higher quantities of pollen will attach to these hairs.  

While investigating the importance of moths, they monitored ponds in agricultural regions in Norfolk where it was noted that 45% of the moths were transporting pollen derived from 47 different floral species. Moths are seen as generalists where they can pollinate/ feed on a wide range of floral species, meanwhile, bumble/ honeybees will target the most prolific nectar and pollen sources.

This study has come at a pivotal period in our climate crisis as moths are suffering from serious decline with a 28% decline in the UK since 1968. Interstingly, the southern portion of England have suffered from a 40% reduction, meanwhile, the northern proportion has displayed no significant decline. This is likely to be due to the higher abundance of urban centers along the south. Street lights have had detrimental effects on nocturnal species which confuses them on when to feed. Some individuals may feed during the day time where they're out competed by diurnal species. Chemical pesticides are also responsible where they reduce floral diversity and will often be toxic to moths when consumed.

Dr Walton (UCL Geography) concluded: “While bumblebees and honeybees are known to be super pollinators they also preferentially target the most prolific nectar and pollen sources.

“Moths may appear to be less effective pollinators by comparison, but their high diversity and abundance may make them critical to pollination in ways that we still need to understand. Our research sheds light on a little known world of nocturnal plant-insect interactions that might be vital to the look and smell of our precious countryside and to the crops that we grow.”

 

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• Walton, R., 2020. Moths Have A Secret But Vital Role As Pollinators In The Night. [online] UCL News. Available at: <https://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/2020/may/moths-have-secret-vital-role-pollinators-night> [Accessed 8 August 2020].
• Butterfly-conservation.org. 2020. The State Of Britain's Moths. [online] Available at: <https://butterfly-conservation.org/moths/the-state-of-britains-moths> [Accessed 8 August 2020].

 

Why Ancient Woodlands are so valuable?

Ancient woodlands are wooded areas that have been covered in the same native woodland cover since 1600 AD. These habitats are irreplaceable due to the many years of the native fauna  to evolve to the composition of these habitats to take full advantage of the many niches up for offer. 

These habitats compose of just 2% of the UK's landscape and so provide a unique habitat which provide the UK with photogenically rare fauna that are severely vulnerable to any disturbances and so the niches that don't overlap between the generalists will die along with the species. 

Half of all of the UK ancient woodlands, are severely degraded and in serious need of restoration. Instead, much of these forests are being replaced with non-native conifer plantations with little differentiation between species variation. These plantation pose little ecological benefit where it is shown these transformations reduces biodiversity in the native bird, reptile, and mammal species where the rare species are the most vulnerable due to their incapability to adapt and take up new niches. 

Although, restoration won't be capable of completely restoring the conservation value of the fully intact ancient woodland, if serious degradation/ destruction has occurred restoration is the best to do to mitigate the carbon emission and to provide a form of support for the surrounding biodiversity. These restoration programmes display varying results with the common denominator being the planting of photogenically distinct native flora to provide adequate supports for rare species as well as improving the multifunctionality of the woodland.

 

What happened to Mauritius?

The oil spill that the Mauritius coast suffered from had extended to a diameter of 15km making up a volume of 350km squared of their shore. The reason for such a large media coverage is due to the incorporation of many environmentally sensitive habitats and had been protected under the Ramsar Convention Wetlands of International importance as a biodiversity hotspot. 

The immediate impact of the spill isn't the concern but it will effect the ecosystem equally where for example, pressures will be put onto the coral species causing the zooxanthellae to expel which is responsible for the photosynthesizing of the corals and this pressure is known as coral bleaching. This will then put significant pressures  along the levels of the trophic cascade where these corals are often involved in a bottom up ecosystem. 

A big issue with oil spills in marine environments is the addition of currents which drags the oil to which was transporting the oil to more environmentally important habitats composed of seagrasses, corals, mangroves. providing shelter, food source, nurseries, wave control. Although, a small area had been initially exposed to the oil, the nature of our marine systems had resulted in long term, long spanning areas. Larger

The initial impact of this spill was poisoning of much of the fish biomass reducing the population of many species within the 15km diameter and the vegetation will have withered and died. The first group effected had been the filter feeders including molluscs, crustaceans etc. There has yet been all the deaths resulting from the oil spill expected and will have long spanning effects for decades to come. 

Corals take from 9-12 years to recover, however, due to significant declines of the herbiverous fish groom the corals to prevent coral bleaching and the consumption of older corals allows for the establishment of newer coral species. What is likely to occur is that algal turf will dominate the habitat, outcompeting all other aquatic flora. Larger grazing fish are likely to increase due to increase algal turf biomass, which will then in turn reduce energy transferred between the substrate and the fauna. It will then transfer energy between grazers to carnivores. Even with no effect on the fish population, it is highly likely that these corals would never return as they are known not to be profficient reproducers.

The oil spill has eradicated much of the light availability reaching the flora causing further light dependent species to simply wither and die. The soluble compounds from oil spills will then disolve in the water creating creating heavy residue onto the seabed preventing the establishment of aquatic floral species. 

As hundreds to thousands of fish wash up onto our shorelines, the seabirds are also effected due to a lack of viable food source but as well, the oil weighs them down preventing them from flying where they will die of starvation/ exhaustion.

Although, a small area had been initially exposed to the oil, the nature of our marine systems had resulted in long term, long spanning areas. Shell are planning on leaving 4 abandoned platforms storing 11,000 tonnes of oil in the North Sea. Mauritius has just been a warning, due to increased wave velocities and more oil will potentially do untold damage for our marine systems and will have global consequences for many decades to come. 

We never asked for a Mauritius part 2, so please spread the word and sign the petition below.

https://www.change.org/p/shell-stop-shell-north-sea-revolution?redirect=false

 

Human's influence on coral reefs

Research conducted by the Arizona State University in conjunction with the University of Leeds had recorded an alarming decline of fish biomass of 45% within the their surveying period. This is a significant concern as these fish play vital ecosystem services for tropical coral reefs which form a mutualistic relationship. 

Herbivorous fish are important in the maintenance of our coral reefs where for example the parrot-fish use their beak-like jaw to scrape clean the substratum of the corals providing new sites and exposing this coral substratum suitable for coral settlement and to recover from coral bleaching.

Grazers play a vital role in keeping the coral turf abundance in control which show little environmental importance and if provided with adequate levels of nutrients the turf coral will outcompete all other vegetation. An issue that had been identified in the west of Hawaii by the University of Leeds   had realized that nitrogen effluent originating from sewage had put a strain onto the coral and fish populations because of the excess nutrient levels in the water. This causes domination of turf coral eliminating large quantities of other coral species. Due to high abundances of these turf corals will increase fertility rates of large grazers and predators due to less strain put onto these populations, however, due to a lack of corals (shelter, nursery etc) as well to such a high predator causes smaller fish populations will plummet. These large grazers and apex predators have very few natural predators and are classified as a type 1 on the survivorship curve. This then will result in a reduction in energy transfer between the trophic levels because most of the energy is consumed by the fish and there is little natural death and organic material which will further reduce coral populations.

These coral reefs are so integral component of the oceans as they provide the aquatic systems with a diverse genetic library. Without the maintenance of these ecosystems it would be likely that generalist species would dominate causing a lower genetic diversity library which will make it more difficult for these species to adapt to environmental change. 

Coral reefs are also responsible in dispating 97% of the wind energy that would otherwise smash off the coastline. With the extreme climates predicted with climate change will cause significant damage to ecosystems in the coastline and only grasslands would likely survive. It is likely that countries like Ireland would suffer from the destruction of life and erosion of the coastlines.

Biodiversity needs changes to farming.

One third of our land mass is occupied through farming activities and are directly/ indirectly involved with the endangerment of 62% of threatened species through highly mechanized, external chemicals etc. 

It has been urged through research derived from research undertaken by the university of Gottingen suggests a transition from modern farming practicesvia the 2020 Global biodiversity Framework will significantly reduce environmental degradation meanwhile achieving sustainable food systems for our ever-growing population. 

Heavy fertilizer use has demonstrated to have negative implications on nutrient recycling processes due to a loss of mychorhizal associations between fungi and their host plant. Due to a high influx of bioavailable nitrogen and phosphorus the plant no longer sees a need to carry on the symbiotic relationship as it will lose more than it would gain in that current situation. Fertilizers will subsequently cause the soil to lose it's fertility over the long run and these associations are gone they will never return.

The mychorhizal fungi resides in the plant's root tissue. The plant provides the fungi with a constant supply of carbohydrates such as sucrose and glucose while in return the fungi will convert the abundant nitrogen into nitrate which is usable by plants. 

Agroecology is a scientific approach where research is performed prior to the management involving the holistic study of these agri-ecosystems that aims to improve the resillience and sustainability for food systems

This practice creates a positive interaction between the agricultural ecosystems and the elements whilst improving soil biodiversity which are vital for primary production and so will have positive effects along the top of the food chain and will improve crop yield.

Improved soil biodiversity has profoundly beneficial effects on the efficiency of farming, where for example improved soil biodiversity has been shown to improve plant's resilience to diseases, climate change, water and nutrient uptake.  

Dr Thomas Cherico Wanger from Westlake University China and University of Göttingen and first author discussed how "The importance of agroecology to change agriculture and protect biodiversity has been recognized by many top level organizations, in the scientific community, and by practitioners, which is also reflected in the number and affiliations of signatories of our Correspondence. Following our positive discussions with representatives of the COP15, I hope that this correspondence can help to stimulate discussions in the policy arena and make a real impact on agricultural production systems."

EurekAlert!. 2020. Changes In Farming Urgent To Rescue Biodiversity. [online] Available at: <https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-07/uog-cif072020.php> [Accessed 3 September 2020].

 Delvaux, F., 2018. [online] Trocaire.org. Available at: <https://www.trocaire.org/sites/default/files/resources/policy/principles_of_agroecology.pdf> [Accessed 3 September 2020].

Woodland management

Woodland ecosystems are a key aspect of the countryside environment and are vital for the health of ecosystems through an array of ecosystem services through carbon sequestration, provide a range of many niches in a small area, prevent soil erosion etc. As deforestation appears to not be slowing down any time soon, it is important that  adequate management is undertaken in these declining habitats.

Coppicing is a common management technique which is clearing small sections of trees so more light may reach the ground flora. Following this practice, light increased by 4 fold in Spring and 20 fold during Summer time. There is a strong correlation between the amount of light reaching the floor and the diversity and abundance of the ground flora.

The level of shade, ride width and the cutting regime are all aspects that must be carefully considered when coppicing as it has a major impact on wildlife. The width of rides (path of cleared trees) must be 1.5 times wide as the height. To optimize the period of sunlight, these rides should run from east to west were the ground flora will be exposed to light for the sunlight period.

Cutting regimes are suggested to be cut on a 3 zone system which is more suited for nature reserves. The first zone will be cut once a year where 50% of grass species will be cut. The second zone will have 25% of vegetation cut and the 3rd zone will be left to allow natural regeneration to occur.



It is recommended that cuttings occur during Autumn time when invertebrates are less active while simultaneously promoting vigorous grass growth. Small cuttings in zone 2 during July won't have negative implications on invertebrates. Removal of grass growth is best to be performed during Spring time.

To further enhance the biodiversity in these woodland habitats, incorporating shaded, well lit streams are beneficial to most invertebrates and birds as a breeding site. Leaving the dead wood from the coppicing in semi shaded areas are valuable for fungi and lichen establishment. Arboreal species such as squirrels should also be accounted for where the canopy of the trees either side of the ride should be in contact with one another in order to allow these individuas to run from tree to tree.

Strong winds in these rides will disrupt the biodiversity especially the invertebrates. Long straight rides will encourage channeling of strong winds. To prevent this from occurring, curved rides are suggested.  
 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FkRuMqVuJDE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qg3Ucu6wYZw

Whale mucus reveals poor health during migration.

Researchers from the University of New South Wales (UNSW) had collected and obtained whale blow (equivalent to human mucus) from a sample population of Humpback whales. The target sample were derived from those returning to the west of Australia. This whale blow had been analyzed and noted that there was a reduced microbiota abundance and diversity compared to before their migratory voyage to the Antarctica.  

The lead author of this research, Dr Catherina Vendi, has a background in veterinary science and had stated the richness of a whale's airways is a strong indicator of the humpback whale's overall health. Prior to this research, Dr Vendi, had studied literature based on humans implicated with respiratory diseases with it being confirmed those experiencing these diseases showed a lack of microbial diversity within their airways.

The decline in the whale's health has been said to be due to prolonged period of fasting during their 8,000km migratory route from Queensland to the Antarctica. Over fishing is thought to be the primary contributing factor where the United Nations FAO's 2020 State of World Fisheries & Aquaculture report had revealed that global fisheries have been over fished with 34.2% of these fisheries poached beyond sustainable limits resulting in a 49% decline in fisheries between 1970 to 2012. 

These humpback whale populations rely on schools of fish such as cod, sardines, mackrel etc and so this reduction in fish populations will apply significant pressure onto the humpback whale population reducing fertility rates, immunity, adaption to environmental change etc.

This reduction has been a consequence of over fishing, pollution and climate change working in conjunction with one another. Pollution has also had an influential direct impact on the humpback whales which along with fasting is likely to reduce their immune system.

• Catharina Vendl, Eve Slavich, Bernd Wemheuer, Tiffanie Nelson, Belinda Ferrari, Torsten Thomas, Tracey Rogers. Respiratory microbiota of humpback whales may be reduced in diversity and richness the longer they fast. Scientific Reports, 2020; 10 (1) DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69602-x [Accessed 11 August 2020].
• Msc.org. 2020. Oceans At Risk | Marine Stewardship Council. [online] Available at: <https://www.msc.org/what-we-are-doing/oceans-at-risk?gclid=Cj0KCQjwg8n5BRCdARIsALxKb953AGrXGCLtPRD6ZBIweMxCEbPXr8sy0OVoMZykyp0z4V2-f_SXNwQaAl0IEALw_wcB> [Accessed 11 August 2020].

How climate change causes top heavy Aquatic food webs

 University of British Columbia (UBC), 25th / June/ 2020 - This research replicates the predicted rainfall patterns expected to occur as a result of climate change across 7 different sites ranging central and south America. The model ecosystem that had been used was winged larvae insects that lives under bromelaid plants. 

The results obtained from this survey revealed that large day to day variation in extreme rainfall patterns showed an increase in predator species and a decrease in the prey species and the insect larvae making the food web top heavy.  

The proffesor of zoology in UBC and co-author of this research, Diane Srivastava had discussed how negative this may be to the aquatic ecosystem but also emphasized how negative this will be to the forrest ecosystem as these model larvae are winged playing a massive role in the terrestrial ecosystem. 

The results that had been collected did not support the hypothesis set out initially prior to the survey. It was expected the predator species population would depleat as they are often more vulnerable to changes to the environment. 

This study can be applied to streams, rivers, lakes etc. This study should be performed for long periods of time where a cohort life table is formed. It is likely the prey species would eventually begin to rise because predator-prey interactions are commonly cyclical waves. As the prey species lowers, reproductive rates of the predator species will depress and mortality will slightly accelerate as this puts pressure on the predator species due to a lack of food source. I would hypothesize the long term effects of extreme rainfall patterns caused by climate change will cause high fluctuations in the aquatic populations. An unstable aquatic environment will be established which is likely to better support generalist species.

The longevity of these aquatic ecosystems subjected to these rainfall patterns is unknown and only educated guesses may be used to evaluate the long term effects at this point in time due to lack of research. As of now all that has been confirmed is that the rainfall creates a top heavy trophic cascade within the ecosystem.

Research

University of British Columbia. "Extreme rainfall events cause top-heavy aquatic food webs." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 9 July 2020. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/07/200709085310.htm>.

How planting trees can damage the environment?

Stanford university, 22nd June 2020 - Projects of plating large quantities of non-native, mono culture plantations has become very common to comeback the climate change pandemic. Recent research led by the Stanford University has no carbon sequestration benefits and there is significant correlation between the replacement of a natural ecosystem to larger non-native, monocultures with significant losses in the biodiversity. 

These monocultures are described as 'highly uniform agricultural systems that replaces natural ecosystems and their rich biodiversity' by Sandy Gauntlett of the Pacific Indigenous People Environment Coalition. 

The native fauna have taken centuries of evolution with their environment which creates a suitable habitat for these individuals in terms of food, shelter etc. 

Polyculture forests are said to be significantly more beneficial for biodiversity as they provide a larger realized niche for the fauna as they provide a greater diversity of shelters, food, leaf litter, habitat type suitable for a wide range of different fauna. Monocultures often provide an environment which benefits generalist species which are widespread and will then out compete the specialist species. This habitat will typically have little diversity with one dominant species. This is negative because we are replacing rare species that can only habituate in a small number of ecosystems with species that have no treat. 

Studies performed before and after transforming a native ecosystem into a monoculture plantation where it was discovered that there was a 40-60% decline in bird populations and a 25% decline in amphibian populations.

Studies published in 'Nature' has stated that youthful monoculture plantations may act as emitters. Old native forest climaxes are associated with storage of high volumes of carbon content, however, the disturbance and degradation resulting from replacing the previous ecosystem (similar to how disturbed peatlands act as methane emitters). These monocultures are typically raised for the purpose of reaching a nations timber production goals which will release much of the carbon stored which will often make these habitats release more carbon than it has stored throughout it's life. 

It would be significantly more environmentally friendly on all aspects if less trees would be planted and more efforts are put into raising native polyculture woodlands.

References

• University, S., 2020. When Planting Trees Threatens The Forest | Stanford News. [online] Stanford News. Available at: <https://news.stanford.edu/2020/06/22/planting-trees-threatens-forest/> [Accessed 28 July 2020].

• Butler, R., 2008. Monoculture Tree Plantations Are “Green Deserts” Not Forests, Say Activists. [online] Mongabay Environmental News. Available at: <https://news.mongabay.com/2008/09/monoculture-tree-plantations-are-green-deserts-not-forests-say-activists/> [Accessed 28 July 2020].

The Red Squirrel's are Back?!?!?!

As of the 15th of June, 2020, research led by National University of Ireland, Galway has recorded an increase in the native red squirrel population thanks to the growth in abundance to the native carnivore called pine martens in the Irish midlands. There is a significant correlation between the increase of pine martens and decrease of grey squirrels in habitats in the presence of red squirrels because of the grey squirrel's larger size, decreased agility and greater time spent on the ground foraging in comparison to the native red's. This interaction is a classic top-down trophic cascade where the top carnivores dictates the structure of the surrounding ecosystem. These pine martens were studied through a non-invasive, DNA analysis on the pine marten used to study the food consumed. It was discovered wood mice were the primary food source, followed by the grey squirrel and very few red squirrels. The reduction of the invasive American grey squirrel has resulted in an increase in the red squirrel population as grey's transmit a fatal parapox virus that they've built an immunity towards and they also consume all of the green acorns. Red squirrels can only consume green acorns as they  cannot digest mature acorns. This will put pressure onto the population of the red squirrels which will prevent them from breeding which will then increase grey squirrel populations further and so worsening the situation.

Queen's University, Belfast (QUB) also performed studies on this trophic cascade and back's this correlation between pine martens and grey squirrels. Studies performed in Northern Ireland (NI) are more important as it's predicted there will no longer be any red squirrels remaining in NI within the next few decades. This study predicts there will be an increase in grey squirrels in urban parks due to the lack of wooded areas in these parks. Joshua Twinning of QUB stated "As the pine maten does not occupy urban areas anywhere within it's European range, it (Pine martens) is not likely to be the sole solution to the invasive grey squirrel". 

https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/first-they-cloned-dolly-the-sheep-now-they-are-targeting-grey-squirrels-xdjzm3rgb

References

• Nuigalway.ie. 2020. June - NUI Galway. [online] Available at: <http://www.nuigalway.ie/about-us/news-and-events/news-archive/2020/june/red-squirrels-making-comeback-as-return-of-native-pine-marten-spells-bad-news-for-invasive-grey-squirrel-1.html> [Accessed 16 July 2020].
• Dwyer, S., 2020. Pine Martens Could Be Solution To Saving Red Squirrels In Urban Areas. [online] TheJournal.ie. Available at: <https://www.thejournal.ie/grey-squirrel-and-pine-marten-relationship-5121288-Jun2020/> [Accessed 16 July 2020].
•   O'Sullivan, K., 2019. Good Neighbours: How Pine Martens Are Helping Red Squirrels Survive. [online] The Irish Times. Available at: <https://www.irishtimes.com/news/environment/good-neighbours-how-pine-martens-are-helping-red-squirrels-survive-1.3822153> [Accessed 16 July 2020].