Human's influence on coral reefs

Research conducted by the Arizona State University in conjunction with the University of Leeds had recorded an alarming decline of fish biomass of 45% within the their surveying period. This is a significant concern as these fish play vital ecosystem services for tropical coral reefs which form a mutualistic relationship. 

Herbivorous fish are important in the maintenance of our coral reefs where for example the parrot-fish use their beak-like jaw to scrape clean the substratum of the corals providing new sites and exposing this coral substratum suitable for coral settlement and to recover from coral bleaching.

Grazers play a vital role in keeping the coral turf abundance in control which show little environmental importance and if provided with adequate levels of nutrients the turf coral will outcompete all other vegetation. An issue that had been identified in the west of Hawaii by the University of Leeds   had realized that nitrogen effluent originating from sewage had put a strain onto the coral and fish populations because of the excess nutrient levels in the water. This causes domination of turf coral eliminating large quantities of other coral species. Due to high abundances of these turf corals will increase fertility rates of large grazers and predators due to less strain put onto these populations, however, due to a lack of corals (shelter, nursery etc) as well to such a high predator causes smaller fish populations will plummet. These large grazers and apex predators have very few natural predators and are classified as a type 1 on the survivorship curve. This then will result in a reduction in energy transfer between the trophic levels because most of the energy is consumed by the fish and there is little natural death and organic material which will further reduce coral populations.

These coral reefs are so integral component of the oceans as they provide the aquatic systems with a diverse genetic library. Without the maintenance of these ecosystems it would be likely that generalist species would dominate causing a lower genetic diversity library which will make it more difficult for these species to adapt to environmental change. 

Coral reefs are also responsible in dispating 97% of the wind energy that would otherwise smash off the coastline. With the extreme climates predicted with climate change will cause significant damage to ecosystems in the coastline and only grasslands would likely survive. It is likely that countries like Ireland would suffer from the destruction of life and erosion of the coastlines.

Biodiversity needs changes to farming.

One third of our land mass is occupied through farming activities and are directly/ indirectly involved with the endangerment of 62% of threatened species through highly mechanized, external chemicals etc. 

It has been urged through research derived from research undertaken by the university of Gottingen suggests a transition from modern farming practicesvia the 2020 Global biodiversity Framework will significantly reduce environmental degradation meanwhile achieving sustainable food systems for our ever-growing population. 

Heavy fertilizer use has demonstrated to have negative implications on nutrient recycling processes due to a loss of mychorhizal associations between fungi and their host plant. Due to a high influx of bioavailable nitrogen and phosphorus the plant no longer sees a need to carry on the symbiotic relationship as it will lose more than it would gain in that current situation. Fertilizers will subsequently cause the soil to lose it's fertility over the long run and these associations are gone they will never return.

The mychorhizal fungi resides in the plant's root tissue. The plant provides the fungi with a constant supply of carbohydrates such as sucrose and glucose while in return the fungi will convert the abundant nitrogen into nitrate which is usable by plants. 

Agroecology is a scientific approach where research is performed prior to the management involving the holistic study of these agri-ecosystems that aims to improve the resillience and sustainability for food systems

This practice creates a positive interaction between the agricultural ecosystems and the elements whilst improving soil biodiversity which are vital for primary production and so will have positive effects along the top of the food chain and will improve crop yield.

Improved soil biodiversity has profoundly beneficial effects on the efficiency of farming, where for example improved soil biodiversity has been shown to improve plant's resilience to diseases, climate change, water and nutrient uptake.  

Dr Thomas Cherico Wanger from Westlake University China and University of Göttingen and first author discussed how "The importance of agroecology to change agriculture and protect biodiversity has been recognized by many top level organizations, in the scientific community, and by practitioners, which is also reflected in the number and affiliations of signatories of our Correspondence. Following our positive discussions with representatives of the COP15, I hope that this correspondence can help to stimulate discussions in the policy arena and make a real impact on agricultural production systems."

EurekAlert!. 2020. Changes In Farming Urgent To Rescue Biodiversity. [online] Available at: <https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-07/uog-cif072020.php> [Accessed 3 September 2020].

 Delvaux, F., 2018. [online] Trocaire.org. Available at: <https://www.trocaire.org/sites/default/files/resources/policy/principles_of_agroecology.pdf> [Accessed 3 September 2020].

Woodland management

Woodland ecosystems are a key aspect of the countryside environment and are vital for the health of ecosystems through an array of ecosystem services through carbon sequestration, provide a range of many niches in a small area, prevent soil erosion etc. As deforestation appears to not be slowing down any time soon, it is important that  adequate management is undertaken in these declining habitats.

Coppicing is a common management technique which is clearing small sections of trees so more light may reach the ground flora. Following this practice, light increased by 4 fold in Spring and 20 fold during Summer time. There is a strong correlation between the amount of light reaching the floor and the diversity and abundance of the ground flora.

The level of shade, ride width and the cutting regime are all aspects that must be carefully considered when coppicing as it has a major impact on wildlife. The width of rides (path of cleared trees) must be 1.5 times wide as the height. To optimize the period of sunlight, these rides should run from east to west were the ground flora will be exposed to light for the sunlight period.

Cutting regimes are suggested to be cut on a 3 zone system which is more suited for nature reserves. The first zone will be cut once a year where 50% of grass species will be cut. The second zone will have 25% of vegetation cut and the 3rd zone will be left to allow natural regeneration to occur.



It is recommended that cuttings occur during Autumn time when invertebrates are less active while simultaneously promoting vigorous grass growth. Small cuttings in zone 2 during July won't have negative implications on invertebrates. Removal of grass growth is best to be performed during Spring time.

To further enhance the biodiversity in these woodland habitats, incorporating shaded, well lit streams are beneficial to most invertebrates and birds as a breeding site. Leaving the dead wood from the coppicing in semi shaded areas are valuable for fungi and lichen establishment. Arboreal species such as squirrels should also be accounted for where the canopy of the trees either side of the ride should be in contact with one another in order to allow these individuas to run from tree to tree.

Strong winds in these rides will disrupt the biodiversity especially the invertebrates. Long straight rides will encourage channeling of strong winds. To prevent this from occurring, curved rides are suggested.  
 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FkRuMqVuJDE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qg3Ucu6wYZw

Whale mucus reveals poor health during migration.

Researchers from the University of New South Wales (UNSW) had collected and obtained whale blow (equivalent to human mucus) from a sample population of Humpback whales. The target sample were derived from those returning to the west of Australia. This whale blow had been analyzed and noted that there was a reduced microbiota abundance and diversity compared to before their migratory voyage to the Antarctica.  

The lead author of this research, Dr Catherina Vendi, has a background in veterinary science and had stated the richness of a whale's airways is a strong indicator of the humpback whale's overall health. Prior to this research, Dr Vendi, had studied literature based on humans implicated with respiratory diseases with it being confirmed those experiencing these diseases showed a lack of microbial diversity within their airways.

The decline in the whale's health has been said to be due to prolonged period of fasting during their 8,000km migratory route from Queensland to the Antarctica. Over fishing is thought to be the primary contributing factor where the United Nations FAO's 2020 State of World Fisheries & Aquaculture report had revealed that global fisheries have been over fished with 34.2% of these fisheries poached beyond sustainable limits resulting in a 49% decline in fisheries between 1970 to 2012. 

These humpback whale populations rely on schools of fish such as cod, sardines, mackrel etc and so this reduction in fish populations will apply significant pressure onto the humpback whale population reducing fertility rates, immunity, adaption to environmental change etc.

This reduction has been a consequence of over fishing, pollution and climate change working in conjunction with one another. Pollution has also had an influential direct impact on the humpback whales which along with fasting is likely to reduce their immune system.

• Catharina Vendl, Eve Slavich, Bernd Wemheuer, Tiffanie Nelson, Belinda Ferrari, Torsten Thomas, Tracey Rogers. Respiratory microbiota of humpback whales may be reduced in diversity and richness the longer they fast. Scientific Reports, 2020; 10 (1) DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69602-x [Accessed 11 August 2020].
• Msc.org. 2020. Oceans At Risk | Marine Stewardship Council. [online] Available at: <https://www.msc.org/what-we-are-doing/oceans-at-risk?gclid=Cj0KCQjwg8n5BRCdARIsALxKb953AGrXGCLtPRD6ZBIweMxCEbPXr8sy0OVoMZykyp0z4V2-f_SXNwQaAl0IEALw_wcB> [Accessed 11 August 2020].

How climate change causes top heavy Aquatic food webs

 University of British Columbia (UBC), 25th / June/ 2020 - This research replicates the predicted rainfall patterns expected to occur as a result of climate change across 7 different sites ranging central and south America. The model ecosystem that had been used was winged larvae insects that lives under bromelaid plants. 

The results obtained from this survey revealed that large day to day variation in extreme rainfall patterns showed an increase in predator species and a decrease in the prey species and the insect larvae making the food web top heavy.  

The proffesor of zoology in UBC and co-author of this research, Diane Srivastava had discussed how negative this may be to the aquatic ecosystem but also emphasized how negative this will be to the forrest ecosystem as these model larvae are winged playing a massive role in the terrestrial ecosystem. 

The results that had been collected did not support the hypothesis set out initially prior to the survey. It was expected the predator species population would depleat as they are often more vulnerable to changes to the environment. 

This study can be applied to streams, rivers, lakes etc. This study should be performed for long periods of time where a cohort life table is formed. It is likely the prey species would eventually begin to rise because predator-prey interactions are commonly cyclical waves. As the prey species lowers, reproductive rates of the predator species will depress and mortality will slightly accelerate as this puts pressure on the predator species due to a lack of food source. I would hypothesize the long term effects of extreme rainfall patterns caused by climate change will cause high fluctuations in the aquatic populations. An unstable aquatic environment will be established which is likely to better support generalist species.

The longevity of these aquatic ecosystems subjected to these rainfall patterns is unknown and only educated guesses may be used to evaluate the long term effects at this point in time due to lack of research. As of now all that has been confirmed is that the rainfall creates a top heavy trophic cascade within the ecosystem.

Research

University of British Columbia. "Extreme rainfall events cause top-heavy aquatic food webs." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 9 July 2020. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/07/200709085310.htm>.

How planting trees can damage the environment?

Stanford university, 22nd June 2020 - Projects of plating large quantities of non-native, mono culture plantations has become very common to comeback the climate change pandemic. Recent research led by the Stanford University has no carbon sequestration benefits and there is significant correlation between the replacement of a natural ecosystem to larger non-native, monocultures with significant losses in the biodiversity. 

These monocultures are described as 'highly uniform agricultural systems that replaces natural ecosystems and their rich biodiversity' by Sandy Gauntlett of the Pacific Indigenous People Environment Coalition. 

The native fauna have taken centuries of evolution with their environment which creates a suitable habitat for these individuals in terms of food, shelter etc. 

Polyculture forests are said to be significantly more beneficial for biodiversity as they provide a larger realized niche for the fauna as they provide a greater diversity of shelters, food, leaf litter, habitat type suitable for a wide range of different fauna. Monocultures often provide an environment which benefits generalist species which are widespread and will then out compete the specialist species. This habitat will typically have little diversity with one dominant species. This is negative because we are replacing rare species that can only habituate in a small number of ecosystems with species that have no treat. 

Studies performed before and after transforming a native ecosystem into a monoculture plantation where it was discovered that there was a 40-60% decline in bird populations and a 25% decline in amphibian populations.

Studies published in 'Nature' has stated that youthful monoculture plantations may act as emitters. Old native forest climaxes are associated with storage of high volumes of carbon content, however, the disturbance and degradation resulting from replacing the previous ecosystem (similar to how disturbed peatlands act as methane emitters). These monocultures are typically raised for the purpose of reaching a nations timber production goals which will release much of the carbon stored which will often make these habitats release more carbon than it has stored throughout it's life. 

It would be significantly more environmentally friendly on all aspects if less trees would be planted and more efforts are put into raising native polyculture woodlands.

References

• University, S., 2020. When Planting Trees Threatens The Forest | Stanford News. [online] Stanford News. Available at: <https://news.stanford.edu/2020/06/22/planting-trees-threatens-forest/> [Accessed 28 July 2020].

• Butler, R., 2008. Monoculture Tree Plantations Are “Green Deserts” Not Forests, Say Activists. [online] Mongabay Environmental News. Available at: <https://news.mongabay.com/2008/09/monoculture-tree-plantations-are-green-deserts-not-forests-say-activists/> [Accessed 28 July 2020].

The Red Squirrel's are Back?!?!?!

As of the 15th of June, 2020, research led by National University of Ireland, Galway has recorded an increase in the native red squirrel population thanks to the growth in abundance to the native carnivore called pine martens in the Irish midlands. There is a significant correlation between the increase of pine martens and decrease of grey squirrels in habitats in the presence of red squirrels because of the grey squirrel's larger size, decreased agility and greater time spent on the ground foraging in comparison to the native red's. This interaction is a classic top-down trophic cascade where the top carnivores dictates the structure of the surrounding ecosystem. These pine martens were studied through a non-invasive, DNA analysis on the pine marten used to study the food consumed. It was discovered wood mice were the primary food source, followed by the grey squirrel and very few red squirrels. The reduction of the invasive American grey squirrel has resulted in an increase in the red squirrel population as grey's transmit a fatal parapox virus that they've built an immunity towards and they also consume all of the green acorns. Red squirrels can only consume green acorns as they  cannot digest mature acorns. This will put pressure onto the population of the red squirrels which will prevent them from breeding which will then increase grey squirrel populations further and so worsening the situation.

Queen's University, Belfast (QUB) also performed studies on this trophic cascade and back's this correlation between pine martens and grey squirrels. Studies performed in Northern Ireland (NI) are more important as it's predicted there will no longer be any red squirrels remaining in NI within the next few decades. This study predicts there will be an increase in grey squirrels in urban parks due to the lack of wooded areas in these parks. Joshua Twinning of QUB stated "As the pine maten does not occupy urban areas anywhere within it's European range, it (Pine martens) is not likely to be the sole solution to the invasive grey squirrel". 

https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/first-they-cloned-dolly-the-sheep-now-they-are-targeting-grey-squirrels-xdjzm3rgb

References

• Nuigalway.ie. 2020. June - NUI Galway. [online] Available at: <http://www.nuigalway.ie/about-us/news-and-events/news-archive/2020/june/red-squirrels-making-comeback-as-return-of-native-pine-marten-spells-bad-news-for-invasive-grey-squirrel-1.html> [Accessed 16 July 2020].
• Dwyer, S., 2020. Pine Martens Could Be Solution To Saving Red Squirrels In Urban Areas. [online] TheJournal.ie. Available at: <https://www.thejournal.ie/grey-squirrel-and-pine-marten-relationship-5121288-Jun2020/> [Accessed 16 July 2020].
•   O'Sullivan, K., 2019. Good Neighbours: How Pine Martens Are Helping Red Squirrels Survive. [online] The Irish Times. Available at: <https://www.irishtimes.com/news/environment/good-neighbours-how-pine-martens-are-helping-red-squirrels-survive-1.3822153> [Accessed 16 July 2020].

The Amazon's on fire!!!!!!!!

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This blog has been inspired by the postponement on a vote for a bill which would allow for the destruction and deforestation of this ecosystem. Much pressure has been pressed by the public, members of parliament and international companies. The world is now keeping an eye on this piece of legislation and hoping they place the world's well-being over short-term economical benefits.

https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2608/new-study-shows-the-amazon-makes-its-own-rainy-season/

About 20% of the Amazon has already been destroyed for grazing of livestock, growing crops for the livestock  opening up Brazil to establish more urban centers away from the coast and obtaining resources ie palm oil. It is expected there will be an overall 27% removal of the rainforest within the next 10 years. The Amazon rainforest plays a vital role in the water cycle for the Amazon region and for the entire continent of South America. Hypothetically if the entire rainforest had been cleared it is likely this region would become an arid region, prone to fires and struggle to grow viable crops. The trees in this forest acts as a biotic pump which releases transpiration creating water vapor which will then cool and condense. This condensation reduces the air pressure that creates a vacuum where the evaporated water from the Atlantic ocean is pushed in the direction of the Amazon. As the vapor (clouds) drifts along the west of the continent it drops water along the continent and releases the remainder of the water droplets once it reaches the Andes mountain (relief rainfall). This relief rainfall is then collected and stored by the vegetation of the Andes with the rest entering rivers where they flow through the continent where most of the rivers flow back out to the east of South American coast where it begins this water cycle in the Atlantic ocean. A single oak tree transpires 40,000 gallons of water vapor per year so due to the intensity of the trees in the Amazon rainforest it is commonly compared as a flowing river in the sky. This rainforest creates it's own climate which will be eternally eliminated in the South American continent if the Amazon rainforest is completely cleared. 10-15% of all global atmospheric water is available due to forests. It's been predicted by Princeton University that there will be a decrease in precipitation in the Americas if deforestation continues. It's also predicted that the complete removal of the Amazon rainforest could lead to a decrease in precipitation at a magnitude of a 50% decline in rainfall as far up as the Sierra Nevada. The increase in fires created in the US and Canada seen in recent years is expected to be caused by the 20% of rain forest already destroyed.

https://www.americanforests.org/blog/no-trees-means-no-rain/

The Amazon rainforrest is also responsible for temperature regulation for the South American continent through the storage of a trillion tonnes of carbon with 31% of this carbon stored within the biomass of the trees (leaves) which would be released through an increase in deforestation. These forests also regulate the temperature within it's region as it creates clouds through transpiration.  These clouds (especially white clouds) reflects the sunlight wavelength which reduces the temperature and decreases the risk of desiccation of South American soils and vegetation. This decrease in rainfall and increase in temperature (evaporation) will likely lead to the inaccessibility of drinking water and establishment of unsuitable conditions for much of the vegetation (crops). It is likely there will be growth of pioneer species (fast growing, tolerant plants) with most unsuitable for crop production and a scarcity of vegetation to sustain the population in South America.

In conclusion, if deforestation continues the soil will lose it's fertility and so if grazing of livestock is desired receding of the rain forest will need to be done which will result in desertification turning this continent into a 3rd world region with insufficient levels of crops and drinking water. Tourism is also sure to reduce as a result and fires will become a more common occurrence which will constantly destroy any remnants of their economy in South America. Although, it may benefit Brazil to open up the Amazon rain forest to profit from urban centers and agriculture, the further destruction will create devastating effects to Brazil in the long term and likely to harm nations outside of South America. I believe it is likely that this currently thriving nation may become a third world nation struggling to find water, grow crops with malnourished livestock. Their tourism which accounts for such a high amount of their economy will crumble with the only people immigrating in likely to have aid due to the harsh conditions which will ensue. Please comment below on whether you agree or disagree with all criticisms more than welcome.   

The True Lungs of this Planet

Many may not know this but peatlands are one of the most important entity for the health of this planet and biodiversity. Forrest's are provided with the spotlight as major carbon converters. This is simply not the case as peatlands are capable of storing up to 30% of all the world's soil carbon despite covering just 3% of the earth's surface. To put into perspective, forests makes up 30% of the earth's surface and can store just half the amount that peatlands can. Peatlands also prevent many nations from flooding over as it can store up to 30 times it's dry weight in water and is associated with 70% of all of the United Kingdom's drinking water filteration (It's actually cheaper to restore an entire peatland compared to simply running the maintenance of a water treatment plant). Ireland makes up 17% (3rd highest cover in the world despite it's small size) of the world's peatland cover. All of these peatlands in Ireland that are protected under the Annexe habitats directive had been assessed as bad due to the constant draining, degradation etc. There is a significant correlation between  peatland's effectiveness of carbon sequestration and the degree of fragmentation of these peats. It is common for these degraded habitats to release methane, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses accounting for 10% of greenhouse gasses emitted annually.  In the midst of an environmental pandemic, which may spell out disaster for all species sharing this planet, we must look to these nations (Ireland, Finland and Canada) to look after their most prized asset for mankind.

https://www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/resources/commission-inquiry/work-commission-2011/impacts-burning-management-peatlands

How Peatlands store so much carbon?

Carbon is absorbed by peatlands through the living plants unique to this habitat. Sphagnum can store more carbon than any other plant genus. Sphagnum is known as an ecosystem engineer and thrives in waterlogged conditions. Raised bogs are made up of almost entirely of sphagnum which contain a phenolic compound embedded within it's cell wall which is the main constituent responsible for carbon storage. When these plants die and turn into peat the carbon is contained within the soil and doesn't emmit back into the environment due to the low degradation rates. This is due to a host of factors mainly including the waterlogged state of the soil, pH and oxygen availability. Wet soils typically exhibit low decomposition rates of organic compounds as it fills the spaces within the soil which restricts the level of oxygen available to the bacteria involved with degradation. These soils absorb significantly more carbon than they release back into the atmosphere in comparison to other soils, however, this also means that when an area of peatland is cut(which is very common in Ireland) it will release significantly more carbon constituents in comparison to deforestation. Once these soil's burnt it creates the most significant biochemical imbalancement man could ever perform as the rate at which the carbon is released (fast flux) is so much greater than the rate at which it's being  absorbed (peat formation is a slow flux process).  

Research Issues

There have been many studies performed on the better understanding the role these wetland habitats play in helping cease global warming, however, despite the already known importance of peatlands most of these studies have gone incomplete. Accomplished studies are rare mainly due to the complexity of these soil types. Other issues which restricts a sufficient examination is the distance of these habitats from settlements ie. Finland, Russia etc and so it is more difficult to transport their resources and to maintain repeated  surveys in testing the peatland's response.